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Codex Chapman

Eagle and Ocelot Warriors

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Eagles: Concepts and Ideals
The Eagle Within the Codex
The Florentine Codex, which contains great insight into the Nahutal world and its culture, provides a plethora of entries about eagles. These mentions range from anatomical descriptions of the types of eagles found in nature, to how their feathers are prepared to be used within the daily life of the people. What sets this specific bird apart from its fellow birds of prey, like the falcon and such, is how it is closely linked to the ideal image of a warrior. As a symbol of courage and valor, the eagle is often used to represent a core pillar of Aztec culture. Regardless of how the eagle is represented, its importance and the message the image sends generally remain the same.
Through the Lens of Nahuatl and Spanish
There are many descriptions of all kinds of animals within the Florentine Codex, the pages document the physical attributes of the creatures and their behavioral habits. With that being said, the parts that mention birds of prey, specifically eagles, are quite numerous. The written text describes these animals in such detail that it starts to breach into the realm of an actual modern and scientific observation. Though it would be remiss to not mention that the descriptive text differs somewhat between the Spanish and Nahuatl versions.
For example, in book eleven, aptly titled Earthly Things, folio 42v lists multiple birds of prey. It covers a few hawks but primarily focuses on different kinds of eagles found locally. However, this is only true for the Nahuatl translation, as the Spanish translation never mentions hawks and primarily focuses only on eagles. The two entries that mention hawks have been completely removed from the translation and can only be seen in the Nahuatl version of the text. In order, birds mentioned in the Nahuatl translation are called crab hawks, white eagles, nocturnal eagles, marsh hawks, water eagles, and golden eagles. Names are followed by short facts about the bird's physical attributes and frequently refer to the example that came before it to serve as a point of comparison. The Spanish text has a pretty one-to-one translation of the Nahuatl descriptions of the birds but includes an extra sentence informing the reader of the Nahuatl word of the specific animal they are describing. To reiterate the birds mentioned, but this time in Spanish, the Nahuatl terms mentioned are iztac cuauhtli, yoalcuauhtli, tlacocuauhtli, acuauhtli, and itzcuauhtli. These terms correspond with the aforementioned eagles from the Nahuatl text.
Differences between the two texts are subtle but highlight the priorities of the writer. For the Nahuatl author, they were working under the assumption that the reader would already be well acquainted with the Aztec culture. So it was more vital to simply record the information down, without the need to over-explain every detail. The Spanish version contained much more background context needed to understand the Nahuatl terms the translator decided to present. Since it would most likely be read by a person with minimal understanding of the local environment, extra steps had to be taken to ensure there would be no room for confusion. This is also most likely why the Spanish text fails to introduce the hawks. Having two entries on a different kind of bird sandwiched amidst the mentions of eagles could disorganize the categories these animals belong. Regardless, the translations make great efforts to faithfully convey the messages of the original.
A Symbol of Valor
In that sense, eagles are closely linked to subjects of war, which is an indisputable part of the lives of Nahuatl people. As an empire built upon the conquest of neighboring territories, warfare played instrumental roles within the culture. Given that, the innate nature of an eagle is very much aligned with common ideals often associated with birds of prey. By observing them in nature, the conclusion the Aztec people came to was that these birds were predators sitting near the top of the food chain. It draws many parallels to natural-born warriors who fearlessly threw themselves into combat to achieve victory. Courage was a quality that became inseparable from the eagle and was an ideal to strive for. “The eagle is fearless…it can gaze into, it can face, the sun…it is brave, daring, a wingbeater, a screamer…”
Being a person with great military accomplishment was a great honor, and was typically merited with warriorhood. The two main kinds of warriors found within the Florentine Codex are ocelot warriors and eagle warriors. These were the most respected combatants of the community, as they were decorated soldiers who successfully carried out their duties during campaigns. In book two, The Ceremonies, it is quite obvious that these warriors were highly respected members of society. In the text, which describes a sacrificial ritual, these persons are referred to as “great ocelot [and] eagle warriors”. These individuals directly participate alongside a priest during a religious ceremony offering hearts and blood to their gods. Clearly, this meant that being a warrior, or more specifically an ocelot or eagle warrior, brought about a certain level of privilege, status, and responsibilities.
Though the eagle and ocelot warriors are usually mentioned in the same breath in most of the Florentine Codex, they are titles that are awarded to the appropriate ranks. This can be seen in book twelve, The Conquest of Mexico, within folio 75v. Here, specific historical figures are mentioned, and alongside their names are their warrior ranks. “The first eagle was Topantemoctzin and the second Tlacotzin. The first jaguar was Temilotzin, and the second Coyohuehuetzin.” Tlacotzin ruled the Aztec empire during its final years of independence, before being the first ruler under Spanish colonial influence. And following that, Temilotzin was supposedly a second in command of sorts and a subordinate to Tlacotzin. Respectively, it can be inferred that the hierarchy here would place the eagle warrior above the ocelot warrior. Eagles must be reserved for only the highest of honors. Its image and emblem are not taken lightly, as it expresses the personal qualities of the one sitting up top.
L’embellir: To Embellish the Self
As such, the natural progression of an eagle’s role within culture extended to fashion in the form of accessories and costumes. Warriors would adorn themselves with eagle feathers and images. Eagles were instrumental in the religious ceremonies and daily life of Aztec culture. They were found throughout the entire Florentine Codex and were constantly mentioned in a myriad of contexts. Clothing is a way to represent the self, and dressing in the regalia of an eagle would express one’s status and innate nature.
During the seventeenth month Tititl, a female slave was purchased and sacrificed in honor of the goddess Ilamatecuhtli. As written in book two, folio 93r to 93v, the woman was to be dressed in a specific outfit before being killed. In addition to white skirts and a huipil, she was also wore an eagle feather headdress. The most fascinating aspect of this entire outfit was the inclusion of a lavishly decorated shield. This ornamental shield was made of white clay and had “a ring made of eagle feathers that had been sewn to the shield itself”. The usage of eagles in outfits was not strictly confined to cloth, as featherwork was present in creative ways beyond the limitations of wearable garments and accessories.
In book eight, Kings and Lords, there are details about the “fifty-six types of capes that the lords wore as part of their apparel”. These were normally given out as gifts for great undertakings of military service to warriors, as such the images on the clothing should be somewhat symbolic of said act. There are many variations of animals being included in the designs woven onto these pieces of cloth, with the eagle being among them. An eagle on a cape would naturally be associated with a courageous feat.
For these two pieces, eagles were used in two unique ways. One leaned into usage of the eagle’s parts, its feathers, and incorporated it into the headdress and shield through intricate featherwork. On the other hand, compared to the important religious ceremony dedicated to Ilamatecuhtli, the capes were meant for a more casual situation. Rather than utilize an eagle’s body parts, weavers opted for the image of an eagle instead. Despite the differing techniques used, the concept of the eagle and what it stands for remains constant across mediums.
Cuauhtli
Much of what is understood about Nahuatl is information derived from the Florentine Codex, as it is one of the few records left that contain firsthand accounts of the people living within the Aztec empire and its culture. It documents all facets of the empire’s ecology and society. There are many terms and concepts that come up numerous times, with eagles being one of them. Mentions of this bird of prey can be found in almost every book of the Florentine Codex.
The anatomical composition and environmental behaviors of the various types of eagles found locally are written down. Though Nahuatl text is quite sparse on the finer details and the Spanish version is not exactly the most faithfully translated, it does an excellent job catering to the needs of the readers. Moving past biological entries, eagles also serve an important symbolic role. Eagles are incredibly capable hunters who, according to the Aztecs, are animals that embody bravery. This idea extends into the realm of social hierarchy as well. Eagle warriors being venerated members of the community really highlights the pedestal the eagle has been placed on. And this is shown through the inclusion of the eagle’s image and feathers into props and clothing. Wearing capes inscribed with an eagle or wielding a shield with interwoven eagle feathers exemplifies the qualities the eagle is meant to express.
No matter how the eagle is portrayed, it will always remain a critical part of the Nahuatl culture. It is not an animal that can be lightly replaced with another, as it has deep ties to Tenochtitlan and its people.
Works Cited
Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 2: The Ceremonies", fol. 21r, (Anderson & Dibble 1953–1982) nahuatl translation Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/2/folio/21r?spTexts=&nhTexts= Accessed 5 May 2024.

Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 2: The Ceremonies", fol. 93v, (Anderson & Dibble 1953–1982) nahuatl translation Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/2/folio/93v?spTexts=&nhTexts= Accessed 5 May 2024.

Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 6: Rhetoric and Moral Philosophy", fol. 71v, (Anderson & Dibble 1953–1982) nahuatl translation Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/6/folio/71v?spTexts=&nhTexts= Accessed 5 May 2024.

Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 8: Kings and Lords", fol. 15v, (Anderson & Dibble 1953–1982) nahuatl translation Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/8/folio/15v?spTexts=&nhTexts= Accessed 5 May 2024.

Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 11: Earthly Things", fol. 42v, (Anderson & Dibble 1953–1982) nahuatl translation Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/11/folio/42v Accessed 5 May 2024.

Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 12: The Conquest of Mexico", fol. 75v, (Alcántara Rojas & Navarrete Linares 2023) Nahuatl-to-Spanish Translation Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/12/folio/75v Accessed 5 May 2024.

Clendinnen, Inga. “The Cost of Courage in Aztec Society.” Past & Present, no. 107 (1985): 44–89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/650706.