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• 1 2024-04-24T20:32:43+00:00 Medicinal Properties of Plants 75 The Florentine Codex is one of the most important texts to the Aztec people, and one of few codices that survived post-conquest; it is a testament to the Aztecs’ deep understanding of themselves in relation to the natural world (among many other topics the codex covers). This section discusses the medicinal properties of plants used by the Aztecs as shown in the Digital Florentine Codex. Contrary to popular belief, the Aztecs possessed an advanced and complex understanding of health and medicine, relying on natural resources to promote the healing of the ill and injured. The Digital Florentine Codex provides a multicultural perspective on Aztec healing practices as it includes translations and transcriptions between English, Spanish, and Nahuatl languages; images and descriptions will be paired with corresponding analyses in the following section. plain 2024-05-08T20:10:46+00:00

  Introduction

  The Digital Florentine Codex provides accessibility to its vast archive of scientific, medicinal, and spiritual knowledge. Included are examples of the plants native to the Aztec civilization, and the many ways in which they served as a primary healthcare practice.

  Obstetrics

  Book 11 Folio 171R of the Digital Florentine Codex features an image titled “Use of Nohpalli” depicting a labor-inducing atolli/atole recipe that pregnant women would drink to ensure a safe and less-painful delivery. The recipe calls for raw, ground-up chia seeds, quetzalhuexotl (willow root), an opposum’s tail “one half the length of the little finger,” and water. The Nahuatl-to-English translation discusses the causes of complicated childbirth and their respective treatments. Sexual activity during pregnancy is thought to negatively affect fetal position, causing it to lay on its side rather than head-down towards the cervix; ingestion of the atole mixture could aid in repositioning and delivery of the fetus. The Spanish-to-English translation describes the recipe as a multipurpose remedy to treat ailments like a severe cough, and digestive issues. Unrelated to it's healing properties, the mixture of ground-up chia seeds is also compared to Castilian linseed oil in this translation, noting its similarities in texture and function for painting and artwork.

  Bone Fracture

  Book 10 Folio 112r illustrates the treatment of a bone fracture; a healer rubs a mixture of ground-up cactus root and bandages the wound with four small splints, allowing the wound to drain while keeping the bones in place. The Nahuatl-to-English translation provides a detailed timeline of how to treat the wound as healing improves: “after twenty days it [the bandage] is untied. When it has been untied, then a poultice of liquidambar to which a powdered maguey [root] and lime have been added, is applied.” After applying the mixture, the wound should be periodically drained from the vein “that join together between the big toe and the other toe, so that the wound does not fester.” This passage in the codex demonstrates the Aztecs’ understanding that injuries like a broken or disjointed bone could lead to infection, which in many cases would be fatal. It’s worth noting that bloodletting was a popular and commonly practiced treatment in many cultures beyond Mesoamerica, before the dawn of modern science. 
   

  Root plants were popular forms of medicine that could treat anything between a cough, to a severe animal bite. Book 10, Folio 106v expands on treating broken or fractured bones. The zacacili root was especially useful for treating broken spines, ribs, or other complicated injuries to the body: “one should place over such a fracture the ground root called zacacili, put some wooden splints around it, and tie these well so that [the bone] does become dislocated again.” A mixture of roots including zacacili, zazalic, and tememetlatl were also supplemental to the healing process, in which the injured would drink a tea of the roots to prevent infection of the broken bone. 
  
  
  This passage in the codex highlights the efficacy of these root mixtures, particularly in addressing complex injuries like broken spines or ribs. The detailed instructions provided for its application, including the use of wooden splints to immobilize the affected area, reflect a systematic approach to medical treatment aimed at ensuring proper healing and preventing further complications. The mention of a mixture of roots, including zacacili, zazalic, and tememetlatl, highlights the holistic nature of Aztec medicine. The preparation of a medicinal tea from these roots not only demonstrates a preventive measure against infection but also underscores the importance of herbal remedies in promoting overall well-being and recovery. In addition to the text, the illustration is divided into two, providing a tutorial of how to apply and ingest the medicine. The combination of visual and textual elements is particularly effective, and is comparable to contemporary medical resources like "WebMD" or other online journals.

   

  Pediatrics

  Book 10, Folio 111r shares yet another multipurpose root-mixture recipe. The recipe calls for cococpatli and tzontecomaxochitl  “which grow in Quauhtepec…where it is desert, [the mixture] is given as an enema” as described in the Nahuatl-to-English translation, though this treatment is designated strictly for adults. There is a clear distinction between how the mixture is administered; children are not given the mixture via enema. Instead, they chew on the roots and drink the juice to heal ruptured organs that may have been caused by a fall or another physical force to the body. The cococpatli and tzontecomaxochitl root mixture can also treat a child with a persistent cough.

  Animal Bite

  As seen in previous examples, the maguey plant was a useful resource for healing many kinds of illnesses and injuries. In the case of a snake bite pictured in Book 11, Folio 80v, the leaves are turned into a bandage and wrapped around a snake bite wound. The maguey leaves are made into a fiber, then stretched over burning coals and rubbed with tobacco before being placed on the wound. 
   

  Dental Care 

  Although this could be interpreted as a pseudo-medical practice, green maize stalks had to be heated over fire before consumption in order to prevent toothaches. Book 5 Folio 22r notes that heating the stalks was imperative, and forgetting to do so was seen as the cause of tooth pain, specifically the molars: “they said that whoever ate green maize stalks at night would get a toothache or a pain in the molars. And to prevent this, whoever ate a green maize stalk at night would [first] heat it over the fire.”
  
  
  
  
  Pine resin, ground-up worm, chile, tlalcacahuatl (peanut) are the recommended ingredients to relieve the symptoms of a tooth infection. The person pictured is dressed in typical spanish colonial garments, which could be linked with the common belief that the Spanish had overall poor hygiene and health during the time of conquest. Although the pine resin was used to relieve toothaches, the codex mentions that the Aztecs were unfamiliar with Pine and Fir trees, whereas the Spanish had familiarity with them. It is possible that this remedy developed in collaboration between both Aztec and Spanish people. 

  
  
  Works Cited

  ​​​​​​Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 11: Earthly Things", fol. 171r, Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/11/folio/171r/images/43694f3c-76d8-4726-a81e-16765515d6c4 Accessed 8 May 2024.
  
  Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 10: The People", fol. 112r, Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/10/folio/112r Accessed 8 May 2024.
  
  Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 10: The People", fol. 111r, Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/10/folio/111r Accessed 8 May 2024.
  
  Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 11: Earthly Things", fol. 80v, Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/11/folio/80v Accessed 8 May 2024.
  
  Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 10: The People", fol. 102r, Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/10/folio/102r Accessed 8 May 2024.
  
  Available at Digital Florentine Codex/Códice Florentino Digital, edited by Kim N. Richter and Alicia Maria Houtrouw, "Book 11: Earthly Things", fol. 112r, Getty Research Institute, 2023. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/en/book/11/folio/112r Accessed 8 May 2024.
   

• 1 2024-04-24T20:34:39+00:00 Spiritual and Psychological Medicine 39 In our modern day and age, scientists have created artificial medications that help treat a variety of diseases, ranging from the common cold to lethal diagnoses. However, few herbal remedies such as melatonin or tea remain. For centuries, people have found that the grinding of herbs and natural organisms that grow from the ground were used to heal numerous ailments. One particular organism that's medicinal usage was popular in Mexicana culture was the Nahuatle term teonanacatl, more commonly known today as psychedelic mushrooms. Frequently displayed throughout the Florentine Codex in addition to other hallucinogenic plants, these are fascinating organisms to examine with their traditional usages of using medicine to combine ideas of the mind and body as one. plain 2024-05-21T13:54:52+00:00

  Importance of Herbal Medicine

  In numerous indigenous manuscripts, the importance of herbal medicine is continuously highlighted as something that played an important role in Mexica history. Herbal medicine consists of therapeutic products and tools made from the grinding of leaves, seeds, flowers, roots, or extractions of other plants overall. Since their development, they have been used as vital forms of treatment for various diseases before the creation of modern medicine. Their use is still prevalent today, with modern populations continuing to incorporate medicinal plants into forms of healthcare (Valdivia-Correa et al., 2016). In modern times all the way back to its founding in the early sixteenth century, herbal medicines significance. One particular form of herbal medicine that Mexico is known for is that of hallucinogenic herbal medicines, providing both medicinal and psychedelic purposes that are continuously presented to viewers in Mexica Codicies. 
  

  Analyzing Teonanacatl

  In this image derived from the Digital Florentine Codex, we are presented with the teonanacatl plant, a term that is defined both as “little mushrooms” and “flesh of the gods” (Guzmán, 2008), lying atop a hill. Its artistic framework appears easily approachable, with little yellow buds, lush greenery alongside the river, and soft painterly display. It may appear as a harmless plant, however they have the power to alter your visions and cognitive state. These mushrooms can grow in hay, fields, or on the plains as displayed. As described in the Spanish-English translation of the Florentine Codex, these mushrooms alter people's visions to range from frightful to funny, and create feelings of high anxiety in their heart. While these are the psychedelic symptoms of teonanacatl, its traditional medicinal purpose was to treat those with fevers and gout. What is interesting to unpack, is the Spanish vs Nahuatl English translation of their significance. Both descriptions explain how they are used to treat fevers and gout, however the Nahuatl translation further explains the hallucinogenic effects, explaining that it makes one feel troubled, deranged, and depressed. It goes on to say that more symptoms include hurling yourself off a cliff, screaming in fear, and taking fright. Given that this is the Nahuatl translation for this particular strain of mushrooms, it suggests that these descriptions are a more accurate representation of the psychological effects teonanacatl had on those who took them, having heavier mental symptoms rather than physical and medicinal ones. 
  
  With 53 hallucinogenic species of teonanacatl noted in Mexico, it is considered to be one of the most important and diverse organisms that is considered to be sacred in the indigenous cultures. Researchers and historians continue to remain unsure on the details, but have hypothesized that there are particular ceremonial-used teonanacatl, showing that they served a variety of purposes (Guzmán, 2008). Several indigenous groups have been revealed practicing the ceremonial and medicinal practice of mushrooms in Mexico, including the Nahuatls, the Matlazincs, and the Totonacs. 
  
  
  

  The Uses of Hallucinogens 

  In this set of images from the Digital Florentine Codex, viewers are presented with different strains of teonanacatl mushrooms and their purposes. The lower-left image depicts the classic mushroom, used to treat fevers through eating or drinking it, and grounded and rubbed on to treat gout or swollen flesh, taking away the pain. The Nauhtl-English translation does not explain the significance of the human-like bird dancing atop the mushrooms, disproportional in size. This suggests that artists might have been giving the viewers an idea of what visions you may see if you took the psychedelic organism. As described in other texts in the Codex, visions might be funny or not make sense, as displayed in this image. The upper-right image depicts how humans engaged with teonanacatl to assist them how they saw fit. The image depicts a man figure who appears to have cut off the tops of the teonanacatl and has taken its supplements to drink. Given his dark colored eyes and slumped appearance, it suggests he is suffering from a fever and using teonanacatl or as described in this section of the Codex as peyotl for its medicinal purposes. The lower-left image shows the toloatzin strain of mushroom, described and depicted as tall and blossoms with upward facing foliage. All of these images combined show not only the visual structure and usage of teonanacatl, but also relationship between the psychedelic and medicinal usages they provide. 
  

  Peyotl

  This image derived from the Digital Florentine Codex presents viewers with yet another form of hallucinogenic mushroom called peyotl. It is a green and white herb that grows in a northern region entitled Mictlan, as described in the Nauhtl-English translation in the Florentine Codex. With its cactus-like shape and orange buds, it is yet another artistic depiction of other psychedelic plants in the Aztec world that are not just mushrooms. It shows that artists wanted viewers to see them within the same realm as all other plant-based medicines used during this time rather than putting hallucinogenics in a different category. If you eat or drink it, it has the same effects of altering your visions to appear comedic or frightful. However, what makes this particular strain unique is that it is seen as a delicacy towards the Chichimeca indigenous group, using it to sustain them. Furthermore, in addition to its healing and mind altering properties, it is known to give the Chichimecas the courage to fight and take away any fear, thirst, or hunger. It is meant to protect those from danger. Given these additional qualities written in the english translation, it suggests that indigenous groups such as the Chichimecas took peyotl not only for medicinal purposes, but psychological and spiritual purposes that made them feel confident and protected when going into war. 

  Spirituality and Peyotl

  Peyotl, or in english translation, “peyote” is a rounded catcus that has over sixty hallucinogenic properties that when liquidly extracted, can help treat lesions, snakebites, and scorpion stings among other aids (Carod-Artal, 2015). This shows that upon further research than what is described in the Digital Florentine Codex, peyotl among other hallucinogenics had numerous healing properties that were beneficial to large populations of people. Researcher Carod-Artal (2015) found that the reason why there was such a spiritual connection to peyotl was because it was used in ritual and curative ceremonies to be able to connect to the spiritual world. What is unique to examine, is that while the Florentine Codex explains how the Chichimecas felt the properties of peyotl gave them protection in warfare, upon further research the Chichimeca were persecuted in the Inquisition, which resulted in the practice of peyotl for warfare being prohibited by 1720 (Carod-Artal, 2015). The significance of this shows that herbal medicine had psychological, psychedelic, and medicinal aspects but as generations modernized, this is an example of how hallucinogens became purely recreational in our modern day. 

  Conclusion

  Plant-based hallucinogens played a vital role in Mesoamerican life as shown throughout these photographs. The Aztec culture saw herbal medicine as a key source to treating many problems both physical and mental. Whether it be through treating fevers and gout, or even psychotic conditions that could allow a person to “travel to other worlds' ' to be cured (Ortiz de Montellano, 1990), that seemed to have endless ways to treat people with natural organisms. There is a Nahua term called yollopatli, meaning “the medicine of the heart”, as described in the Digital Florentine Codex. The Aztec people did not separate mental illnesses from physical ones, meaning that when one got sick, it was a result of both magical-religious factors and the natural environment. This shows the significance of how Aztec people valued the connection between the mind and body in regards to healing, combining them as one. This heavily relates to the prevalence of peyotl and teonanacatl, with terms either meaning “plant” or “flesh” of the gods coming together as one. It symbolizes that ingesting these hallucinogens will allow the gods to heal you, further showing the spiritual and medicinal ideas coming together as one to achieve the overall goal of healing in the sixteenth century. These images as displayed in the Digital Florentine Codex combine ideas of both science and art, with vibrant colors and accurate depictions, as well as the up-close biology of the plants formal structure. Is it yet another example of how the Aztec world valued the combination of the artistic or spiritual world and the realistic scientific world as one in all aspects of life. 

  Works Cited

  Valdivia-Correa, Bárbara, Cristina Gómez-Gutiérrez, Misael Uribe, and Nahum Méndez-Sánchez. “Herbal Medicine in Mexico: A Cause of Hepatotoxicity. A Critical Review.” MDPI, February 15, 2016. 
  
  Guzmán, Gastón. “Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview1.” Institute of Ecology 63, no. 3 (October 23, 2008): 404–12.
  
  Carod-Artal, F.J. “Hallucinogenic Drugs in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Cultures.” Neurología (English Edition), December 2, 2014. 
  
  “Hallucinogens.” The Aztecs’ use of hallucinogenic drugs, December 7, 2023. 
  
  Guzmán, Gastón. “Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview.” Economic Botany 62, no. 3 (October 23, 2008): 404–12. 
  
  Valdivia-Correa, Bárbara, Cristina Gómez-Gutiérrez, Misael Uribe, and Nahum Méndez-Sánchez. “Herbal Medicine in Mexico: A Cause of Hepatotoxicity. A Critical Review.” MDPI, February 15, 2016. 
  
  Magaloni-Kerpel, Diana. 2014. The Colors of the New World: Artists, Materials, and the Creation of the Florentine Codex. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute.

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  Donec adipiscing tristique risus nec. Hendrerit gravida rutrum quisque non tellus orci ac auctor. Nunc scelerisque viverra mauris in aliquam sem fringilla ut. Risus in hendrerit gravida rutrum quisque. Accumsan in nisl nisi scelerisque eu ultrices vitae auctor eu. Nunc congue nisi vitae suscipit tellus mauris a. Felis eget nunc lobortis mattis aliquam. Tempus urna et pharetra pharetra massa massa. Leo in vitae turpis massa. Egestas quis ipsum suspendisse ultrices gravida dictum. Dolor morbi non arcu risus. Aliquam eleifend mi in nulla posuere sollicitudin. Ut enim blandit volutpat maecenas volutpat. Vestibulum mattis ullamcorper velit sed ullamcorper. Vestibulum lectus mauris ultrices eros in. Dapibus ultrices in iaculis nunc sed augue.

  Tempus quam pellentesque nec nam aliquam sem et tortor. Risus quis varius quam quisque id diam vel. Quis imperdiet massa tincidunt nunc pulvinar sapien et ligula. Tortor at risus viverra adipiscing at. Eget nulla facilisi etiam dignissim diam quis enim lobortis scelerisque. Donec ultrices tincidunt arcu non sodales neque. Vestibulum rhoncus est pellentesque elit ullamcorper.

  Turpis in eu mi bibendum neque egestas. Vitae proin sagittis nisl rhoncus mattis rhoncus. In pellentesque massa placerat duis. Quis blandit turpis cursus in hac habitasse. Maecenas accumsan lacus vel facilisis volutpat. Ac feugiat sed lectus vestibulum mattis ullamcorper velit sed ullamcorper. Cum sociis natoque penatibus et. Massa vitae tortor condimentum lacinia quis vel eros donec ac. Sapien pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et. Praesent elementum facilisis leo vel fringilla est ullamcorper. Pellentesque sit amet porttitor eget dolor morbi non arcu risus. Purus viverra accumsan in nisl nisi scelerisque. Bibendum at varius vel pharetra vel. Cursus mattis molestie a iaculis at erat pellentesque adipiscing commodo. Arcu cursus vitae congue mauris rhoncus aenean vel elit. Enim nunc faucibus a pellentesque sit amet porttitor eget dolor. Porta non pulvinar neque laoreet suspendisse interdum.

  Turpis massa sed elementum tempus egestas sed sed. Sem viverra aliquet eget sit amet. Dolor magna eget est lorem. Dui nunc mattis enim ut. Augue interdum velit euismod in pellentesque massa placerat duis. At consectetur lorem donec massa sapien faucibus et. Commodo ullamcorper a lacus vestibulum sed arcu non odio. Tincidunt eget nullam non nisi est. Tristique senectus et netus et. Quam lacus suspendisse faucibus interdum posuere lorem ipsum dolor.

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  Sed arcu non odio euismod lacinia at. Cras pulvinar mattis nunc sed blandit.

  Ante in nibh mauris cursus mattis molestie. Non arcu risus quis varius quam quisque. Hendrerit gravida rutrum quisque non tellus orci ac auctor augue. Aliquam etiam erat velit scelerisque in dictum non.

  Eleifend mi in nulla posuere sollicitudin aliquam ultrices. Auctor elit sed vulputate mi. Id aliquet risus feugiat in. Mus mauris vitae ultricies leo integer malesuada nunc vel.