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Codex Chapman

Quetzalcoatl bathing in the middle of the night

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Citlalin: A Guiding Nahua Force Stars were all powerful celestial objects that guided how Nahua lived. They acted as signs foreshadowing events. Their movements were measured to determine what activities and rituals to perform for the day. Stars also played an integral part with the Nahua gods, making them essential for the Mexica. Many animals and clothing are identified and integrated with a star pattern, revealing the stars' overall importance to Nahua culture. Introduction

To round out the concept of astrology is the theme of stars or citlalin, which, like the sun and moon, had prominence in Nahua culture and the people. Today, we see stars as luminous objects that decorate the night sky, with some of us being more interested in astrology as a divination practice. To the Nahua people, the stars influenced much of their everyday life. Through an investigation of the Florentine Codex of both the images and text, stars acted as an omen of the future Spanish arrival, an object of observation that assisted with agriculture, economics, and rituals, and connected to the gods. The Florentine Codex contains other images incorporating stars into the design. This section highlights the stars through the Mexica pictographic perspective by evaluating the following images and referring to the text.

Star Classification

Book 7 of the Florentine Codex, Astrology, and Natural Philosophy lists the types of stars and their significance to Mexica culture. There is the Fire Drill or Mamalhoaztli, a constellation that, when seen in a specific part of the night sky, would begin the New Fire Ceremony, signifying a new time in Mexica culture (Mexicolore). People would also burn the constellation into their wrists, or else their wrists would be drilled into to make fire when they died (Book 7, Folio 8r). Next is the Morning Star, also known as Venus, which was both a good and bad omen (Book 7, Folio 8r). The Shooting Star or Citlalin tlamina could strike an animal or human, and a worm would appear in the wound (Book 7, Folio 8v). S-shaped stars (Citlalsunecuilli) and Scorpion Stars (Citlalcolotl) look like their description, an S or scorpion (Book 7, Folio 8r). Finally, the Codex mentions comets or citlalin popoca (smoking star).

This image depicts the comet as a white, 8-point star. Surrounding it is an orb of yellow and orange tone, as if the star emanates brightness or heat, drawing attention to it. Smoke billows from the top as if the comet is heading south on the page. The smoke usually means that something is on fire, which everyone knows to be dangerous and can bring problems regarding safety. Interestingly, the accompanying Nahuatl text brings forth the idea of comets being bad omens. Book 7, Folio 8v explains that seeing a comet was a sign of the death of a ruler or the beginning of a war or famine, events that could cause many problems, much of that having to do with safety.

Stars & Omens

This relationship between stars and omens comes up frequently in the Florentine Codex. Books 8 and 12 describe the omens the Mexica witnessed ten years before the invasion of the Spaniards in Tenochtitlan. Oddly enough, two images from Book 8 (Kings and Lords) and Book 12 (The Conquest of Mexico) document a similar moment.
The first from Book 8 shows two male subjects. One is wearing colorful regalia and sits on a yellow thatched chair, identifying him as a man in power. Behind him is an object that looks similar, if not the same headdress the subject is wearing. This replication brings attention to this headdress as if it is an identifying feature of this person. The second subject looks to be a commoner based on his simple white clothing. He holds a bird with red eyes and wings outspread in his hand, obviously disturbed. On the crown of the bird’s head is a circular object with a yellow ring on the outside and a clear, transparent inside with a star. Above this object are more stars. The subject is shown with speech scrolls, which are glyphs to show that the subject is talking.

The image from Book 12 is in black and white. There are also two subjects. One wears a headpiece similar to the first image and sits on a chair. The other subject, wearing a similar outfit to the first image, holds a bird in his arms. The man in the headpiece pulls down the bird by its beak, and on top of its head is a circle with a black background and white stars. Both images are strange, meaning the moment was undoubtedly memorable and impactful for the people there.

These two images represent the seventh omen witnessed before the Spanish conquest. Based on the text (Book 8, Folio 12v, and Book 12, Folio 3r), the seventh omen was when Moctezuma was approached by hunters who caught a large bird. Upon examining the bird, the top of its head had a mirror that contained the sky and the Fire Drill constellation. Moctezuma interpreted this as a bad omen, and when he looked at the mirror a second time, he saw bunches of people suited for war, riding on deer. Moctezuma called for the soothsayers and sages to interpret the image, but when they looked, they saw nothing. Interestingly, both images only included two subjects and not those of the soothsayers or sages, meaning that this omen was indeed for Moctezuma to witness by himself. Also, having two images reference the same moment shows how omens and stars are central to the Nahua perception of life.

Sky Watching & God Connections

The following two images depict stars in the background but, through deeper investigation, reveal how watching stars helped with agriculture and provide insight into the gods’ connections to stars. The first image is black-and-white and comes from Book 11 (Earthly Things). A subject facing right sits on a block tending to plant life on a grass hill near a tree. Behind him is water (the image keywords notes of atl, the Nahua glyph for water), another tree, and a sky of stars. The stars are surrounded by a black curved line with shading on either side, making it seem like the stars are appearing behind a mountain ridge. Since most of the details are focused on the setting and less on the subject, the image describes an area of land near the ocean.

Book 11, Folio 231r names this image as the Anahuacatlalli or the coastal lands. Only a little is said textually. However, the Florentine Codex mentions that “it is a land of wealth, of riches,” more specifically, rich in gold and feathers, based on the Spanish translation (Book 11, Folio 231r). The Handbook to Life in the Aztec World mentions how tracking the stars and “sky watching” were standard practices to know what phase of the agricultural cycle they were in and what activities they could perform depending on the season (Aguilar-Moreno 2006, 304). To figure out where a star was in the sky, they would measure its distance from another object, like a temple or a hill (Aguilar-Moreno 2006, 305). With the stars in the images next to a mountain range and the subject tending to plants, one can assume that the night depicted in this image was suitable for harvesting, watering, and other agricultural practices. Since the Codex mentions that the Anahuacaltalli were wealthy places, it can be inferred that many hills were nearby to help the people figure out what type of agriculture or ritual to perform to make the most out of their resources. The concept of sky-watching exhibits the importance of stars in the guidance of everyday Mexica life.

The second image is from Book 3, The Origin of the Gods. In this colored image, a figure is nude with his conical hat with feathers on top, a shield with a wind emblem, and a cane scattered across the scene. He sits in a body of water, holding a bowl to his head as atl glyphs pour out as if the figure is bathing. Behind him is a night sky with seven yellow stars. Identified by his clothing and regalia, this figure is no other than Quetzalcoatl, the wind god. The text reveals that Quetzalcoatl performed his penances by bleeding his calf (Book 3, 10v). After which, he would bathe at midnight at a place called Xippacoyan (Book 3, 10v). This story highlights that gods were also guided by the stars, which most likely influenced the Mexica people to be more observant of the stars. Another note to mention with Quetzalcoatl is the many interpretations of his death and how many believe he was reincarnated as a star, comet, or the Morning Star. Since the gods were influential figures to the Nahua people, it only makes sense that they also saw stars in high regard.

Other gods are associated with the stars that do not have images in the Florentine Codex but are mentioned in the Handbook to Life in the Aztec World. Mixcoatl, or Cloud Serpent, identified with the stars and, more specifically, “the souls of dead warriors that were sacrificed and ascended to the heavens as stars” (Aguilar-Moreno 2006, 149). Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, or the Lord of Dawn, is the personification of the Morning Star, whose rays can damage people, maize, and water (Aguilar-Moreno 2006, 150). Lastly, the Tzitzimimie, or Star-Demon, attacks the sun during an eclipse with female versions known to devour people, bringing great anxiety to the people (Aguilar-Moreno 2006, 151).

Star Designs

Citlalin was such a culturally significant item that the Nahua people identified animals with a star design and incorporated stars into clothing. Here is an image of a Citlalcoatl, a type of snake. It has a blue-gray gradient coat with a combination of scales and stars, coiled with its tongue sticking out. The text describes it as poisonous, and when bitten by the Citlalcoatl, one will either die or improve based on the Morning Star’s appearance in the sky (Book 11, Folio 85v).

Another is the Citlalaxolotl, a type of axolotl. Its image shows the Citlalaxolotl above some water, dawning a brown-gray coat speckled with white dots. The text mentions that it has white spots and a green belly, is slimy and smelly, and lives in damp environments and water (Book 11, 76r). Although the text does not verbally say that it has a starry design, there is an image keyword: ‘“full of stars” (motif, pattern).’ So, one must assume that the pattern of the Citlalaxolotl mimics one of the stars—also, other pictures labeled with the keyword show similar circular patterns on temples. From our class with Lorena Ochoa, one of the pages in the supplied packet about reading pictograms shows that circular glyphs represent stars. It is also interesting to note that temples were one of the objects used to measure stars’ movements.

Regarding stars in clothing, here is an image of Don Martín Tlacateccatl. Like the first image of Moctezuma, he sits on a yellow chair, dressed in a red and white smock decorated with stars, and wears a blue headpiece. Behind him is a head with a red tie around his hair, making it stand to a point. Again, like the Moctezuma example, the head is an identifying sign of the subject. The text mentions that he is the sixth ruler of Tlatilulco, where he ruled during the “great plague and a war” (Book 8, Folio 6v). Nothing is said about the choice behind the star design. However, if a ruler wears an item of clothing with stars, one can assume its importance.

Conclusion

Describing Nahua life without stars is nearly impossible. Specific star types and constellations acted as signs that influenced the ways Nahua people perceived life and the future. Their movements acted as calendars, delegating certain nights for specific tasks. The Nahua people relied on the stars to do something each day with a purpose. The stars were also connected to influential people like the gods, rulers, and natural wildlife, who also influenced the Nahua way of life. Even a specific glyph refers to stars in their pictorial language. By analyzing these pictograms and text, there is no doubt that stars held a special place in the Nahua culture.